Impacts Of Tourism In Okavango Delta Tourism Essay

Impacts Of Tourism In Okavango Delta Tourism Essay According to Kreag G. (2001) the impacts of tourism are distinguished in seven different types, these are economic, service, social and cultural, natural, community attitude, crowding and congestion and taxes. These impacts are not applicable with every community because the resources and conditions are may differ. Every coin has two sides, means these impacts can affect negatively or positively. Planning and the plans of management with their current implementation helps to increase positive tourism issues and decreases tourism issues (Algansadi, 2009). In economic term, tourism helps to maximize the opportunities of employment like more number of jobs starting from entry level caries low wedges to high professional level positions in management and industrial fields. In service term, increase in tourism helps to create more number of opportunities to rise and develop facilities. According to Andriotis K. (2009) in terms of community attitude, as tourism increases range of facilitie s are used by the local people. Tourism helps to create place more thrilling and exciting. As new development is done by outsiders, community culture is get affected. In terms of crowding and congestion, people come together and get attracted to amazing places. In terms of taxes, tourist spends more money on behalf of services from which value added tax is gained. According to Fennell (2008) in terms of social and cultural, it is in detail consideration of tourism consequence which can be the determinants or assets to the communities. Increase in number of tourist comes with their different values and affects the family life and individual behaviour. The close relation between tourist and the residents helps to create rise in opportunities. Positive impacts of social and cultural are, the education and training plays important role for local people to learn and enhance their qualification and skills which is significant in tourism industry also help trained staff in the organisations. It helps to increase the standard life of the local people with positive economic growth. Increase in tourist spending power help to increase income of local person (Chin C.,2010). It helps to raise investment with the buying process of food, dress, culture and ceremonies etc, which can create tourist interest in the local culture. Negative impacts of social and cultural affects, increase in smuggling, gambling, drinking of alcohol also with the increase in underage drinking, rise in prostitution, drugs and crime. It affects lifestyle, culture, and most important language. Increase in the tourism area affects local residents. There is a negative impact on customs and values of local people (Kreag G., 2001). In terms of natural, the areas of natural resources like oceans, waterfall, wildlife forests increases tourist attraction and new residents who loves the natural environment. Generally clean industry is known as tourism industry, hotels, parks, restaurants, shops are comes under that except factories. The historical and museums get preserved (Kreag G., 2001). Positive impacts as it work as a catalyst to preserve natural area also helps to gain economic benefits. Forests are preserved. The ecotourism is maintained which protects and preserve selected natural environment, also gain economic benefits of tourism development and reduces the impact on environment (Andereck K. L., 1993). Natural system also have negative effects like, it strongly affects on air and water pollution also sedimentation effects with demonising the forests for the tourist services (Kreag G., 2001). Flora and fauna has deep researched on wild life which includes mammals and birds arises the hunting and trapping a ctivities increases also the marine life is get affected when toxic waste water runoff in sea. The soil and beaches are get damaged with the skies, cars, feet, horse etc. Oil refining situated in coastal areas with the water pollution and destruction. Solid waste major effects on soil and air pollution recycle and reusable helps to minimize the pollution (Mukherjee and Abir, 2008). Okavango Delta is the amazing tourist place situated in north-western part of Botswana. Its a home of wildlife where most of the tourist comes for photography and safari hunter. Annually, on average 50,000 tourists visit this place (Mbaiwa J., 2002). Tourism development has boost to create and enhance facilities like hotels, camps, airports, communication services, etc in region. This development has impacts on environment and socio culture of region (Mbaiwa J., 2004). In positive aspect, the region major land is used for tourism development with helping local people to increase benefits from developing of natural resources and wildlife. Local people created an institution known as Community based Organisation (CBOs) which help for tourism development and natural resource management. Institute distribute work in small parts, like Khawai Community works on cutting of thatching grass and see it to the lodges in Delta, similarly others also choose their parts. This helps to empowermen t of local community in region. 2) Tourism development widely creates employment which benefits for the financial development. Opportunities in jobs like accommodation services, tourism business, management, tour operators, etc. The company like Scot Wilson Consultants gave jobs to people in 20 safari campuses (Mbaiwa J., 2002).As all the local communities has only create jobs and opportunities instead of depending on other companies. 3) Cultural rejuvenations promote tourism with their traditionally created products, services, shops, craft industries, etc which provides cultural services to the tourist to know cultural ways. The Mekoro Safaris and basket production are the major known businesses over there. The safaris are created like the dug in a wood, which use for transport and for hunting crocodiles and hippos. The basket production is their traditional business, which helps to generate more profit from the tourists as market comes to their home. 4) Positive approach among th e local people, for development of tourism and conservation of wildlife helps to develop tourism and social economic benefits from tourist arrivals (Mbaiwa J., 2004). According to Mbaiwa (2002) as negative aspect, tourism industry developed in Okavango Delta is largely owned and managed by internationals and developed in remote areas. The financial rates are so high that all services and goods beyond the local community richness. Major profit in earned by international companies and the margined income of the local people is low. The facilities are provided with which the tourist is comfortable. Most of the camps are run by Hospitality and Tourism Association with the international membership. 2) Racism development in tourism industry of Okavango Delta refers to relationship between black and white people. Management levels are occupied by whites, pay scale and benefits are very low for blacks (Fennell A., 2008). 3) Relations and structure of family is affecting by tourism. Foreign companies growing lodges and camps, less space to live local people accept wildness part. Relocate people affects their landmarks and relations. Working period of worke rs affects relationship with family and this impact on increases in HIV/ADIS spread. 3) Tourism and urbanisation put wide negative impact on social culture. The costumes and styles affect relationships. Prostitution is growing in most of the developing countries as urbanisation develops most impacts on local people. Tourism is the major economic sector, which increases in crime with illegal activities like drugs, violence and robberies (Mbaiwa, 2002, 2004). Thus, looking back at the easy, tourism is growing rapidly dealing with positive and negative impacts on the tourist place. Increasing infrastructure put impacts on natural system. Its positive image is excellent for people but the negative image affects culture. Mainly socio cultural positive impact helps to development of tourist destination. Tourism helps to maintain nature and its components. Also it helps to create place attractive and thrilling. Development of tourism increases job opportunities. Positive impact of social culture help local people to educate with training, improves life standards and maintain their culture. Negative side effects mostly on diverse economic and culture, rise in crime, place issues, illegal behaviour. Tourism is developing in Okavango Delta with combining positive and negative social cultural impacts on local people. Its positive impacts helps to develop destination mainly community based tourism. Participating local people helps to generate income and employment by self. Mekoro Safaries and Basket making helps to preserve their own culture. Tourism help local people to get international market at their place. Its negative social impacts affect on quality life of local people. Its important to focus on these impacts by all stakeholders of industry. The camps should be promoted but should not owned by international. The local people should get first preference in management jobs and there should be law to prevent racism.

Fairtale Essay

One of the most well known, well loved and influential genre of literature is the fairy tale. A fairy tale is defined by the Oxford dictionary as â€Å"A children’s story of magical and imaginary beings and lands†. Overtime the concept of fairy tales has changed. Fairy tales are being re-written and re-illustrated constantly, which makes fairy tales appealing to every generation. Fairy tales broaden the imagination of children. They allow us gain an insight into a world of magic and adventure- a world we will never experience but fantasize about. â€Å"Fairy tales are nothing if not realistic: and it is their cynicism that keeps them lively. (Opie, 1980, p. 19) â€Å"A characteristic of the fairy tale, as told today, is that it is unbelievable. Although a fairy tale is seldom a tale about fairy-folk and does not necessarily even feature a fairy, it does contain an enchantment or other supernatural element that is clearly imaginary. † (Opie, 1980 p. 18). The orig in of fairy tales is commonly unknown and more often than not never discovered by the reader. French writers Catherine Bernard, Marie-Jeanne Lheitier, Marie-Catherine d’Aulnoy are believed to be â€Å"chiefly responsible for the establishment of the fairytale as a literacy genre in Europe. (Zipes, 2006,p. 13) of the 1960s. However, it was Italian writers Giovan Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile who played a major role in the rise of literacy in Europe. â€Å"This is one of the best kept secrets that is well worth unlocking because it reveals just how closely tied the literacy fairy tale as genre is to spread of the civilizing process throughout Europe. †(Zipes, 2006, p. 13) However, it was the influence of Boccaccio’s Decamerone that led to the production of various collections of ‘novelle’ that had an impact on the literacy fairy tale as a short narrative.Straparola was the first to publish his collection â€Å"Le piacevoli notti (1550 and 1553) from the example Boccaccio had set. Straparola was different from previous writers. He was the first European writer â€Å"to adapt many tales from oral tradition, creating approximately fourteen literacy fairy tales in his collection of seventy four novella. † (Zipes, 2006, p. 14) Straparola’s work caused some controversy and at one time one of his collections was banned by the pope in 1791. This was due to themes which Straparola had included in his work.He introduced â€Å"plain earthy language† and â€Å"critical view of power struggles in Italian society†. Basile shared similar views on power and civility. (Zipes, 2006). Even form this early stage, fairy tales have always been connected to power, social class and gender stereotyping. Both Straparola and Basile recognised that Italian principalities were being damaged through family conflicts, the change in commerce and trade and war. They used fairy tale's as a written means of broaching t heir concern over the unexpected change of norms on human behaviour. Although time passes and things change, fairytales have not dated.The classic fairy tales that Basile and Straparola once told are still being told to children today all over the world. Thanks to the origination of the fairytale by Straparola and Basil â€Å"we still rely on its narrative strategy to see how dangerous it is to think that we live in more civilized and better world than the realms of the past. †(Zipes, 2006) For centuries young children have been enthralled by fairy tales. Tales of witches, wizards, princes and princesses, fairy godmothers and villains alike have been influencing how children view the world around them.This appears particularly true in the case of young girls, with whom these stories seem to resonate. However living in a contemporary 22nd century society the question needs to be posed; are these stories, written centuries ago, still providing a relevant and realistic portrayal of female role models to the youth of today? Or are these folktales of ‘prince charming’ and ‘happily ever afters’ corrupting ideals from infancy and setting these young girls up for disappointment? Women today have come along away from their 18th century counterparts.Women have fought for years to be able to vote, work, raise children as a lone parent and run a household. Women have gained their right to respect and independence in a world that is no longer dominated my males. These rights are marked as historic events that women are extremely proud of. However still today, when educating children we use â€Å"fairy tales† as means of communicating, although sometimes indirectly, the role women should play in life. For example, in fairy tales, the concept of beauty is outlined very clearly. Beauty is expressed as a physical necessity.The leading lady in the typical fairy tale is usually described and illustrated as a woman possessing features consi dered physically attractive to males, a thin figure, glowing skin, red lips, symmetrical facial features and well attired. In the classical tale of Sleeping Beauty Aurora has â€Å"red lips as red as the red red rose† fair skin, blue eyes long blonde hair and an impossibly thin figure. This seems to be the universal concept of what beauty is among all the fairy tales that Walt Disney have produced. This image of beauty is in stark contrast to the reality in which we live into today.This depiction of the need for beauty is not the only negative stereotype conveyed in fairy tales. Instead of being able to defend and stick up for themselves, women are forever relying on males to rescue them. Whether it be the ‘handsome prince charming’ or the father figure, a male, nevertheless is always there to save the day and resolve whatever predicament has arisen in order for all involved except the villain to live â€Å"happily ever after†. The act of stereotyping serv es as a short-cut to the way that the majority of the population views our culture.Therefore, though we might not completely agree with the way in which gender roles are represented in these fairy tales, it still serves us well in a sense that we might gain a basic understanding of what it means to be a male and what it means to be a female. Whether personally accepted or rejected, the notion of males being dominant and females being subordinate has been deeply embedded into our culture’s view of the gender roles. The villain is also an interesting stereotype which is evident in all fairy tales.Villains are portrayed as ugly, malicious, jealous characters. They are almost always characterised by being an evil step-mother, wicked queen, a witch or an evil mother in law. The job of the villain in a fairytale is to make life difficult for the leading protagonist. The queen in Basile’s version of Snow White is described as â€Å"a murderous and unnatural, unsexed anomaly who tricks Talia†¦ †(Warner ,1995,p. 220). However, evil they are, they always play a powerful female role in all the fairy tales I have chosen to discuss.To consider whether the portrayals of women in classic fairy tales are genuine role models for young girls, I will be examining and referring to the following books: Cinderella , Beauty and the Beast, The Little Mermaid, Sleeping Beauty, Snow White and the seven dwarfs, Mulan and Shrek. Certainly by examining classic fairy tales it is obvious that the central female character is continuously presented as being ‘beautiful’. In the classic tale of Beauty and the Beast, the story begins with â€Å"Once upon a time there lived a rich merchant with three pretty daughters.The youngest was the prettiest of the there and she was called beauty. † From the very beginning of the story, emphasis is put on how beautiful Belle is in the fairytale. The fact that the lead character is appreciated for her beauty alon e speaks multitudes about the message the story gives out to its reader and indeed to young girls. â€Å"There is the threatened union of an almost supernaturally beautiful girl with a hideous monster. † (Iona,Peter, 1980,p. 180) The fairytale puts emphasis on how beautiful Belle is and how ugly the beast is.Similarly Sleeping Beauty â€Å"had a beautiful face and she thought beautiful thoughts†, Snow White â€Å"grew into a beautiful woman†, when Cinderella arrived at the ball everyone wondered â€Å"Who is that beautiful girl? † and The Little Mermaid was â€Å"the youngest, and most beautiful, daughter of Mer King. † The initial portrayal of these women is innocent and positive. Any young girl would aspire to possess such favourable qualities and attractiveness. Being beautiful and falling in love with prince charming, then living happily-ever-after, seems to be the most important outcome of these fairy tales.But the question we have to ask ours elves is -are these ‘harmless’ tales instilling false ideas of what life is like for children? One may not think that reading such biased material to a child could possibly have a lasting effect on their perceptions of how one should conform in society, however according to Bettelheim â€Å"A child trusts what the fairy tale tells, because its world view accords with his own† (Bettelheim, 1991, p. 45) The fairytale is so convincing to the child, as the tale matches the child’s thinking, approach and understanding of the world.Bettelheim states â€Å"these fairytales direct the child’s own thinking about his own development, permitting the child to draw his own conclusion†, yet since some classic fairy tales are known to display gender stereotyping, we must ask ourselves, what implication this has on children’s perspectives of specific gender roles in society if the child is drawing his/her own conclusion after reading the fairy tale. F airy tales portray a black and white view of society. Males are frequently portrayed as the head of the family, who are physically and emotionally strong, and whose sphere exists outside of the home.Females are frequently portrayed as dependent, physically and emotionally weak, and belong inside the home. This depiction of the male and female roles sends a very false and blinding message to its audience. On the other hand it can be argued that stereotypes are a part of life/society. The act of stereotyping serves as a short-cut to the way that the majority of the population views our culture. Therefore, though we might not completely agree with the way in which gender roles are represented in these fairy tales, it still gives a basic understanding of what it means to be a male and what it means to be a female.A similar theme seems to run through all the fairy tales I have chosen. All of the female protagonists are punished in some way as a result of their physical fortune. In Snow W hite, the evil queen wants the â€Å"fairest of them all† so a search is sent for Snow White to be killed. Snow White ends up cleaning, tidying and cooking for seven dwarfs in the forest as payment for letting her stay. Similarly in Cinderella, the beautiful Cinderella is made servant to her step mother and step sisters. Cinderella is isolated in the house and ignored by her step sisters and step mother.Sleeping Beauty is cursed from the moment she was born as a result of her beauty. A wicked witch was furious that she wasn’t invited to the baby’s banquet so she put a spell on her to remain asleep for a hundred years. Belle in Beauty and the Beast finds herself in a similar situation; she is one of three sisters and the only one who cleans and cooks as a result of her misfortune. The women all have a variety of traits in common. All of the female characters I have mentioned display admirable qualities.All of the women are kind and gentle but these female charact ers are viewed as being passive and submissive. These women depend on the male characters in the tales to be either saved or to be happy. This sends out an extremely negative stereotype to young readers, presenting that women’s job in life is cook, clean and wait for â€Å"Prince Charming† to come in order to be happy. According to Bettelheim it is child’s life experiences that teach the child the right manner, he goes on to say â€Å"when children are young, it is literature that carries such information best. † (Tartar, 1999, p. 69) If this is the case then children reading heavily stereotyped tales from an early age will impact their manner and possibly the way they view the gender roles. Bettelheim also states that a child’s â€Å"mind is animistic† and children especially young girls are vulnerable to believing that being beautiful and meeting prince charming are key goals and will result in a â€Å"happily ever after. † West (20 04) argues that â€Å"books are such a major influence in the formation of children’s values and attitudes that adults need to monitor nearly every word that children read. (Hunt, 1999, p. 5) If this is the case, should we be reading child fairy tales? It was the feminist movement that brought a closer examination of gender roles in fairytales. In Lissa Paul’s article she argues that â€Å"While children’s literature is predicated on the notion that children are essentially blank or naive and are in need of protection and instruction, then issues of suitability or unsuitability are important. † (Hunt, 1999, p121) This idea seems to be evident in feminist’s attitudes with regards the lead female character in fairy tales.Feminists feel that these women over rely on their beauty and each wait, in some way or another, for their Prince Charming to come rescue them. According to Lissa Paul’s article, while discussing Cinderella, she states that à ¢â‚¬Å"Most of us- women, children and feminist critics, I imagine – don’t want to be seen valuing riches. Or princes for that matter† (Hunt, 1999, p. 112). However many of the fairy tales chosen for the essay have the common theme of a male hero rescuing or saving the female heroine in the story.They solely depend on the prince to come save them in the end. In Cinderella her family feels she is inferior to them and so she serves as a slave in her own home. â€Å"They were very unkind to her and ordered her about from morning until night. † She is too weak to stand up to them and so waits for a prince to come rescue her. Similarly in Sleeping Beauty she sleeps for one hundred years before a prince comes and rescues her, in Beauty and the Beast, Belle finally ends up with a handsome prince â€Å"the beast disappeared and in his place stood a handsome prince†.In Snow White after she ate the poison apple, she lay peacefully in her coffin until a prince fell in love with her and rescued her â€Å"she opened her eyes and on seeing the handsome prince she fell in love with him†. There is evidently a strong portrayal of physical beauty in these fairy tales and these images of the female protagonist gives a very weak and negative display of women’s abilities and aspirations. On the contrary, however, a very interesting aspect is in Beauty and the Beast. Belle demonstrates having a mind of her own compared to her female counterparts whose main focus was to find their handsome prince using their good looks.Belle looks beyond physical appearance and recognises the good man in the Beast â€Å"she has not mistaken a human lover for a monster, like Psyche, or failed to see a good man beneath the surface.. †(Warner, 1995,p. 307) This follows her gradual arousal of both attraction and sexuality for the Beast throughout the course of the fairytale until he unsurprisingly too turns into a handsome prince at the end. â€Å"B eauty’s wooer has the appearance of a monster, and only after Belle has overcome her aversion for his vile shape can the monster be seen to be a handsome prince. (Opie, 1980, p. 180) The notion of being socially stable is put forward to us. Once these women are saved by their ‘Prince Charming’ and fall in love with him, they are rewarded with a luxurious life as a princess and will ultimately ‘live happily ever after’. The Little Mermaid was written by Hans Christen Andersen in 1836 and was released by Walt Disney in 1989. This fairytale was hoped to go against the grain and portray a leading women who wasn’t submissive or passive but strong and independent and good role model of young children.The tale is about a young teenage mermaid, called Ariel, who doesn’t like her life under the sea and is much more fascinated by the human world. Regardless of her father’s warnings she exchanges her voice for legs with the evil witch to sp end three days on land. She must make Prince Eric fall in love with her and kiss her or else she becomes the sea witch’s forever. The witch reassures her â€Å"the graceful form, the modest gait and speaking eyes. With such as these, it will easy to infatuate a vain human male† (Anderson, 1993,p. 8). It is clear from that short summary that the tale still managed to stereotype women. The message being sent out is that if Ariel relies on her beauty alone she will get the Prince to fall in love with her. Trites 1990 said, â€Å"Undoubtedly, feminists’ have criticized Ariel because she seems to have little ambition beyond getting her prince. † (http://charlottesmedia. blogspot. com/) The story of Mulan helped change the perception of women in Fairy tales but still managed to imply a message that women are inferior to men.Mulan is no one’s trophy and to me is the first groundbreaking Disney film to show a woman to be capable of taking the same roles of men. The story is based on a Chinese myth about a woman who saves china from the Huns. She goes to fight in the war instead of her father and displays traits that are stereotyped as only being male. She is a strong and a courageous woman and breaks social boundaries and expectations. However, Mulan is similar to Belle in Beauty and the Beast, as she too isn’t seen as acceptable in society and this idea of gender obligations is evident.Women ‘should’ be a homemaker and a wife, not cleaver and strong. Finally the film Shrek, created in the 22th century and displays beauty in a different way. Beauty is displayed on the inside in this new image of the princess, which I found to be really refreshing. The two leading characters are ogres. The film goes against the classical fairy tale characteristics. Princess Fiona is different from other princesses and does not wait for prince charming to rescue her. She is a dependent woman who is able to stand on her own two feet. She chooses Shrek as a husband and decides to live her own life as an ogre.This is a unique fairytale as Fiona overlooks physical beauty and is not saved by a male, which results in her having a better life. However she still does live her life as a princess. Unfortunately, many women today hold a â€Å"princess attitude†, and aspire to have a princess type of life. This attitude can be seen among some girls and young women. They often believe that marrying well, especially financially, is desirable, so they can easily live the life of a princess. This may very well be an effect caused by the women that are presented to us in these fairy tales since early childhood.Certainly a clear progression can be seen with regards the representation of women between the 17th-18th century fairy tales (Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty) and the 19th -22nd century fairy tales (Mulan, Shrek). I do appreciate that the morals and values are changing in regard to fairytales in recent years. As a who le, however, In my opinion I think that the fairy tales discussed portray a negative stereotype to young children and are not good role models. According to Zipes â€Å"We can continue to enjoy this harmless pastime of telling classical fairytales to our children, not realising the possible harm or harmlessness. Zipes, 2006,p. 57) Bibliography Andersen, H. C. Fairy Tales: The Little Mermaid, Bristol, Parragon Book Service Ltd, 1993. Bettelheim, B. The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning And Importance Of Fairy Tales, England, Penguin, 1991. Charlotte’s media blog. available at http://charlottesmedia. blogspot. com/ accessed on 14/4/2012 Hunt, peter. Children’s Literature, An illustrated History, Oxford, University Press,1995. Hunt, Peter. Understanding Children’s Literature, London, Routledge, 1999. Ladybird, Snow White And The 7 Dwarfs, Ladybird Ltd, 2005. Marsoli, L. A.Mulan, NY, Mouse Works, 1998. Opie, Iona ; Peter, The Classic Fairy Tales, USA, Oxford Univers ity Press, 1980. Soanes, Catherine, and  Angus Stevenson. Concise Oxford English dictionary. New York:  Oxford University Press,2012. Southgate, V. Beauty and the Beast, UK, Ladybird Books Ltd, 1988. Southgate, V. Cinderella, UK, Ladybird Books Ltd, 1982. Southgate, V. Sleeping Beauty, UK, Ladybird Books Ltd, 1984. Warner, M. Beast to the Blonde ,London, Vintage. 1995. Zipes, Jack. Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion, New York, Routledge, 2006. Film: Shrek, Disney, 2001.

Human Multi-Tasking

Human multitasking is the best performance by an individual of appearing to handle more than one task at the same time. The term is derived from computer multitasking. An example of multitasking is taking phone calls while typing an email. Some believe that multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching and apparently causing more errors due to insufficient attention. Etymology The term â€Å"multitasking† originated in the computer engineering industry. [1] It refers to the ability of a microprocessor to apparently process several tasks simultaneously. 2] Computer multitasking in single core microprocessors actually involves time-sharing the processor; only one task can actually be active at a time, but tasks are rotated through many times a second. With multi-core computers, each core can perform a separate task simultaneously. The first published use of the word â€Å"multitask† appeared in an IBM paper describing the capabilities of the IBM Sy stem/360 in 1965. [3] [edit]Research on human multitasking Since the 1990s, experimental psychologists have started experiments on the nature and limits of human multitasking. It has been shown multitasking is not as workable as concentrated times.In general, these studies have disclosed that people show severe interference when even very simple tasks are performed at the same time, if both tasks require selecting and producing action (e. g. , (Gladstones, Regan & Lee 1989) (Pashler 1994)). Many researchers believe that action planning represents a â€Å"bottleneck†, which the human brain can only perform one task at a time. [4] Psychiatrist Edward M. Hallowell[5] has gone so far as to describe multitasking as a â€Å"mythical activity in which people believe they can perform two or more tasks simultaneously as effectively as one. Others have researched multitasking in specific domains, such as learning. Mayer and Moreno[6] have studied the phenomenon of cognitive load in mu ltimedia learning extensively and have concluded that it is difficult, and possibly impossible to learn new information while engaging in multitasking. Junco and Cotten examined how multitasking affects academic success and found that students who engaged in more multitasking reported more problems with their academic work. 7] A more recent study on the effects of multitasking on academic performance found that using Facebook and text messaging while studying were negatively related to student grades, while online searching and emailing were not [8]. [edit]The brain's role in multitasking Because the brain cannot fully focus when multitasking, people take longer to complete tasks and are predisposed to error. When people attempt to complete many tasks at one time, â€Å"or [alternate] rapidly between them, errors go way up and it takes far longer—often double the time or more—to get the jobs done than if they were done sequentially,† states Meyer. 9] This is lar gely because â€Å"the brain is compelled to restart and refocus†. [10] A study by Meyer and David Kieras found that in the interim between each exchange, the brain makes no progress whatsoever. Therefore, multitasking people not only perform each task less suitably, but lose time in the process. When presented with much information, the brain is forced to pause and refocus continuously as one switches between tasks. [10] Realistically, this is â€Å"a rapid toggling among tasks rather than simultaneous processing. According to a study done by Jordan Grafman, chief of the cognitive neuroscience section at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, â€Å"the most anterior part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it’s incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there,† while Broadman’s Area 10, a part of the brain’s frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long term goals. [9] Fo cusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform a myriad of tasks, it cannot multitask well.Another study by Rene Marois, a psychologist of Vanderbilt University, discovered that the brain exhibits a â€Å"response selection bottleneck† when asked to perform several tasks at once. The brain must then decide which activity is most important, thereby taking more time. Psychologist David Meyer of the University of Michigan claims that, instead of a â€Å"bottleneck,† the brain experiences â€Å"adaptive executive control† which places priorities on each activity. These viewpoints differ in that, while bottlenecking attempts to force many thoughts through the brain at once, adaptive executive control prioritizes tasks to maintain resemblance of rder. The brain better understands this order and, as psychologists such as Dr. Meyer believe, can therefore be trained to mult itask. [11] Because the brain is an expanse of yet uncharted territory, psychologists do not understand how the brain truly processes input and reacts to overstimulation. Some research suggests that the human brain can be trained to multitask. A study published in Child Development by Monica Luciana, associate professor of psychology at the University of Minnesota, discovered that the brain’s capability of categorizing competing information continues to develop until ages sixteen and seventeen.Perhaps if people are trained to multitask at an early age, they will become efficient at multitasking. A study by Vanderbilt University found that multitasking is largely limited by â€Å"the speed with which our prefrontal cortex processes information. † Paul E. Dux, co-author of the study, believes that this process can become faster through proper training. The research team found that with training, the brain can think and perform certain tasks more quickly, effectively allo wing time for another task. The study trained seven people to perform two simple tasks, either separately or together, and conducted brain scans of the participants.The individuals multitasked poorly at first but, with training, were able to adeptly perform the tasks simultaneously. Brain scans of the participants indicate that the prefrontal cortex quickened its ability to process the information, enabling the individuals to multitask more efficiently. However, the study also suggests that the brain is incapable of performing multiple tasks at one time, even after extensive training. [12] This study further indicates that, while the brain can become adept at processing and responding to certain information, it cannot truly multitask.People have a limited ability to retain information, which worsens when the amount of information increases. For this reason people alter information to make it more memorable, such as separating a ten-digit phone number into three smaller groups or div iding the alphabet into sets of three to five letters. George Miller, former psychologist at Harvard University, believes the limits to the human brain’s capacity centers around â€Å"the number seven, plus or minus two. † An illustrative example of this is a test in which a person must repeat numbers read aloud.While two or three numbers are easily repeated, shown in the beginning straight line, fifteen numbers becomes more difficult, as the line curves. The person would, on average, repeat seven correctly. [13] Brains are only capable of storing a limited amount of information in their short term memories. This ineffectiveness of the human brain for multitasking has been demonstrated in different studies. [14][15][16] Laboratory based studies of multi-tasking indicate that one motivation for switching between tasks is to increase the time spent on the task that produces the most reward (Payne, Duggan & Neth, 2007).This reward could be progress towards an overall task goal or it could simply be the opportunity to pursue a more interesting or fun activity. Payne, Duggan and Neth (2007) found that decisions to switch task reflected either the reward provided by the current task or the availability of a suitable opportunity to switch (i. e. the completion of a subgoal). A French fMRI study published in 2010 indicated preliminary support for the hypothesis that the brain can pursue at most two goals simultaneously, one for each frontal lobe (which has a goal-oriented area). [17] [edit]Continuous partial attentionMain article: Continuous partial attention Author Steven Berlin Johnson describes one kind of multitasking: â€Å"It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish. â€Å"[18] Multimedia pioneer Linda Stone coined the phrase â€Å"continuous partial attention† for this kind of processing. [19] Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.Rapidly increasing technology fosters multitasking because it promotes multiple sources of input at a given time. Instead of exchanging old equipment like TV, print, and music, for new equipment such as computers, the Internet, and video games children and teens combine forms of media and continually increase sources of input. [20] According to studies by the Kaiser Family Foundation, in 1999 only 16 percent of time spent using media such as internet, television, video games, telephones, text-messaging, or e-mail was combined.In 2005, 26 percent of the time this media was used together. [11] This increase in media usage decreases the amount of attention paid to each device. Today 82 percent of youth use the Internet by the seventh grade, according to the Pew Internet and American Life Project. A 2005 surv ey by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that, while their usage of media continued at a constant 6. 5 hours per day, Americans ages 8 to 18 were crowding roughly 8. 5 hours’ worth of media into their days due to multitasking.The survey showed that one quarter to one third of the participants have more than one input â€Å"most of the time† while watching television, listening to music, or reading. [9] The 2007 Harvard Business Review featured Linda Stone’s idea of â€Å"continuous partial attention,† or, â€Å"constantly scanning for opportunities and staying on top of contacts, events, and activities in an effort to miss nothing†. [11] As technology provides more distractions, attention is spread among tasks more thinly. A prevalent example of this inattention to detail due to multitasking is apparent when people talk on cell phones while driving.Talking and driving are mutually exclusive because focusing on both the conversation and the road use s the same part of the brain. [citation needed] As a result, people generally become more concerned with their phone conversations and do not concentrate on their immediate surroundings. A 2006 study published in the Human Factors journal showed that drivers talking on cell phones were more involved in rear-end collisions and sped up slower than drivers intoxicated over the . 08% legal limit. [citation needed] When talking, people must withdraw their attention from the road in order to formulate responses.Because the brain cannot focus on two sources of input at one time, driving and listening or talking, constantly changing input provided by cell phones distracts the brain and increases the likelihood of accidents. [citation needed] [edit]Popular commentary on practical multitasking Multitasking has been criticized as a hindrance to completing tasks or feeling happiness. Barry Schwartz has noted that, given the media-rich landscape of the Internet era, it is tempting to get into a habit of dwelling in a constant sea of information with too many choices, which has been noted to have a negative effect on human happiness. 21] The idea that women are better multitaskers than men has been popular in the media. Recently, a study by British psychologist Professor Keith Laws at the University of Hertfordshire was widely reported in the press to have provided the first evidence of female multitasking superiority. [22] A formal research paper has yet to be published. In another study,[23] females were found to perform better at coordinating a primary test with a secondary test (p=0. 007), supporting this notion that females are better at multi-tasking.However, the authors concluded their tests may not reflect real life multi-tasking and that further research was required. Observers of youth in modern society often comment upon the apparently advanced multitasking capabilities of the youngest generations of humans (Generation Y and Generation Z). While it is true that c ontemporary researchers find that youths in today's world exhibit high levels of multitasking, most experts believe that members of the Net Generation are not any better at multitasking than members of older generations. 24] However, recent studies by Bardhi, Rohm, and Sultan argue that Generation Y is becoming better at media multitasking. This is evidenced by the fact that they are gaining control over deciding which messages they pay attention to or not. [25] Furthermore, while there is a great deal of evidence showing the negative effects of multitasking on cognitive tasks [26] [27] [28] [29] [30], there is no evidence showing that multitasking has a positive or neutral effect on these tasks. **Source: WIKIPEDIA (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Human_multitasking)

The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and...

The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 On December 8, 2003, President Bush signed into law the Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003 (Pub. L. 108-173). This landmark legislation provides seniors and individuals with disabilities with a prescription drug benefit, more choices, and better benefits under Medicare. It produced the largest overhaul of Medicare in the public health programs 38-year history. The MMA was signed by President George W. Bush on December 8, 2003, after passing in Congress by a close margin. One month later, the ten-year cost estimate was boosted to $534 billion, up more than $100 billion over the figure presented by the Bush administration†¦show more content†¦Istook Jr., changed his vote to present after being told that C.W. bill Young, who was absent due to a death in the family, would have voted yes if he had been present. Then, Republicans Butch Otter and Jo Ann Emerson switched their vote to yes under pressure from the party leadership. The bill passed by one vote, 216-215. On June 26, the Senate passed its version of the bill, 76-21. The bills were unified in conference, and on November 21, the bill came back to the House for approval. The bill came to a vote on November 22. After a short period, the bill was losing, 219-215, with David Wu not voting. Speaker Dennis Hastert and Majority Leader Tom DeLay tried to convince some of dissenting Republicans to switch their votes, as they had in June. Istook, who had always been a wavering vote, consented quickly, making a 218-216 tally. In a highly unusual move, the House leadership held the vote open for hours as they tried to get two more votes. Then Representative Nick Smith claimed he was offered campaign funds for his son, who was running to replace him, in return for a change in his vote from a no to a yes. After all this Smith clarified no campaign funds was made, but was offered campaign support. Then they convinced Otter and Trent Franks to switch their votes. With all the voting changes, Wu voted yea as well, and Democrats Calvin M. Dooley, Jim Marshall and David Scott changed their votes to the affirmative. But Brad Miller , and then, Republican JohnShow MoreRelatedMedicare Modernization Essay1141 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction On December 8, 2003, President Bush signed into existence the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act (CMS, 2003). This Act over the years is intended to provide prescription drug benefits to seniors. It will also provide subsidies to insurance companies, health maintenance organizations, and would allow private plans to compete with Medicare (CMS, 2003). Why were changes to Medicare deemed necessary? 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